Find Academic Supervisors

• Machine Learning
• Natural Language Processing
• Music Information Retrieval
• +12 more

Colin Raffel , currently an Associate Professor at the University of Toronto and Associate Research Director at the Vector Institute , is a leading researcher in machine learning and natural language processing . His career spans roles at Hugging Face (Faculty Researcher), Google Brain (Senior Research Scientist), and UNC Chapel Hill (Assistant Professor). Education: PhD in Electrical Engineering (Columbia), MA in Music/Science (Stanford), BA in Mathematics (Oberlin) Key affiliations: Google Brain (2016-2020), Hugging Face (2021-present), Vector Institute (2023-present) His research focuses on language model development , attention mechanisms , efficient machine learning , and music information retrieval . Recent work explores model merging , parameter-efficient fine-tuning , and data-constrained language models . Teaching : Has instructed courses at University of Toronto and UNC Chapel Hill on Neural Networks , Deep Learning , and Information Theory . Academic service includes organizing ICLR workshops and serving as Senior Area Chair for NeurIPS and EMNLP . Notable awards : NSF CAREER (2022), Caspar Bowden Award (2023), NeurIPS Outstanding Paper (2023) Key contributions : Core developer of WT5 , Git-Theta , and mir_eval software

Jackie Chit Kit CheungView profile

Associate Professor

• Natural Language Processing
• Natural Language Generation
• Automatic Summarization
• +12 more

Jackie Chit Kit Cheung is an Associate Professor in the School of Computer Science at McGill University, where he co-directs the Reasoning and Learning Lab. He holds the Canada CIFAR AI Chair and serves as an Associate Scientific Co-Director at the Mila Quebec AI Institute. He is also a consulting researcher at Microsoft Research Montreal. Academic Background: Ph.D. in Computer Science, University of Toronto (2010–2014) M.Sc. in Computer Science, University of Toronto (2008–2010) B.Sc. (Honours) in Computer Science, minors in Linguistics and German, University of British Columbia (2004–2008) Research Interests: Jackie Cheung's research lies at the intersection of natural language processing, machine learning, and cognitive science. He focuses on natural language generation , automatic summarization , commonsense and pragmatic reasoning , and the evaluation of NLP systems . His work aims to build language models that reflect real-world structure and reasoning, with applications in health, education, and language revitalization. He is particularly interested in how implicit meaning is processed in context, a core concern in linguistic pragmatics. Publication Trends: His recent publications (2024–2025) show a strong emphasis on evaluation methodologies (e.g., COSMIC, ECBD), hallucination and factuality in language models, coreference and reasoning , and long-context modeling . He frequently collaborates across institutions and integrates insights from linguistics and psychology into NLP system design and analysis. Scientific Awards: Best Paper Award, ACL 2018 Outstanding Paper Award, NAACL 2018 Student Research Workshop SAC Award, ACL 2024 (for COSMIC) Best Poster Award, CMDO AI-Health Symposium 2024 Advising and Grants: He advises a large and diverse group of graduate students, including PhD and Master’s candidates, often in co-supervision with other faculty. His group has received support from major AI and health research initiatives, including CIFAR and Mila. He has trained alumni who have gone on to faculty and industry research positions. He has served in leadership roles in top NLP conferences, including as Senior Area Chair, Workshop Chair, and Program Chair of Canadian AI 2018. Labs and Teams: He co-directs the Reasoning and Learning Lab at McGill and is deeply involved with Mila – Quebec AI Institute . He founded the NLP Reading Group at McGill, which brings together researchers from computer science, linguistics, and information studies to discuss theoretical and applied NLP topics.

David B. MacDonaldView profile

Professor

• Indigenous Politics
• International Relations
• Genocide Studies
• +4 more

David B. MacDonald is a full Professor of Political Science at the University of Guelph's Department of Political Science, housed within the College of Social & Applied Human Sciences. He holds an honorary academic position at the University of Auckland and previously taught at the University of Otago and ESCP Business School in Paris. His research focuses on Indigenous-settler relations, genocide studies, decolonization, and comparative politics in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the U.S. He has held significant grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), including principal investigator roles on projects like 'Complex Sovereignties' and 'Bi-Nationalism as Reconciliation.' Education: PhD in International Relations from the London School of Economics (2001). Key publications include The Sleeping Giant Awakens (2019) and co-authored textbooks like Comparative Politics (2020). He is North American series editor for Palgrave Macmillan's Global Political Sociology. Research interests emphasize settler colonialism, Indigenous sovereignty, and truth and reconciliation processes. He has contributed to policy discussions, including advising the Canadian Senate on the National Council for Reconciliation. His work bridges academic scholarship with activism, aiming to address systemic inequalities and promote Indigenous rights. SSHRC Grants: Over $200k in grants since 2008, focusing on Indigenous self-determination and colonialism. Publications: 4 sole-authored books; 31 refereed articles; numerous edited volumes. Awards: Shortlisted for the John McMenemy Prize (2013, 2017).

Rodney HarrisonView profile

Senior Lecturer

• Critical Heritage Studies
• Archaeology
• Museum Studies
• +7 more

Rodney Harrison is a Reader in Archaeology, Heritage and Museum Studies at the UCL Institute of Archaeology, University College London. He serves as the founding editor of the Journal of Contemporary Archaeology and has been Vice President of the Association of Critical Heritage Studies since 2012. His research focuses on critical heritage studies, contemporary archaeology, and future-making practices in heritage contexts. Harrison's work challenges traditional boundaries between past, present, and future in heritage discourse, emphasizing how heritage functions as a future-oriented practice. His research spans cultural and natural heritage, exploring connections between heritage conservation and other material legacy management systems, including nuclear waste disposal. Harrison leads the major international 'Heritage Futures' research program funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council. This project represents one of the largest critical, comparative ethnographic studies of heritage practices, examining how different forms of heritage function as distinctive future-making practices across diverse contexts. His scholarly contributions include more than a dozen books and over 60 peer-reviewed articles. Notable publications include Collecting, Ordering, Governing: Museums, Anthropology and Liberal Government (2016), Heritage: Critical Approaches (2013), Reassembling the Collection (2013), Understanding the Politics of Heritage (2011), and The Heritage Reader (2008). Harrison's work consistently engages with critical theory, challenging conventional heritage frameworks and exploring innovative approaches to understanding how material and cultural legacies shape future possibilities. His research has significant implications for heritage policy, conservation practice, and theoretical developments in critical heritage studies.

• Machine Learning
• Deep Learning
• Gaussian Processes
• +5 more

Geoffrey Pleiss is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Statistics at the University of British Columbia's Faculty of Science. He is also a CIFAR AI Chair at the Vector Institute and an inaugural member of CAIDA's AIM-SI (AI Methods for Scientific Impact) cluster. His work bridges statistical theory, machine learning, and computational methods with applications across various scientific domains. Pleiss received his PhD from the Computer Science department at Cornell University in 2020, where he was advised by Kilian Weinberger and worked closely with Andrew Gordon Wilson. Prior to his faculty position at UBC, he was a postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University with John P. Cunningham. His research focuses on the intersection of deep learning and probabilistic modeling, particularly on developing heuristic and approximate notions of uncertainty from machine learning models. His work has significant implications for reliable and optimal decision-making in experimental design and scientific discovery. Major research thrusts include neural network uncertainty quantification, Bayesian optimization, Gaussian processes, and ensemble methods. Pleiss develops theoretical frameworks while maintaining strong connections to practical applications across scientific domains. An analysis of his recent publications reveals a strong focus on uncertainty quantification in deep learning models, with particular attention to the limitations and capabilities of ensemble methods in the era of overparameterized models. His work increasingly addresses practical challenges in Bayesian optimization for scientific discovery, especially in materials science. There's also a growing emphasis on computational efficiency in Gaussian process methods, reflecting his commitment to making advanced statistical techniques accessible for real-world applications. CIFAR AI Chair Pleiss currently advises several graduate students including Donney Fan (PhD, Computer Science), Tim G. Zhou (MSc, Computer Science), Zachary Lau (MSc, Statistics), Nathan Cantafio (BSc, Statistics), and Tristan Cinquin (Research Intern at Vector Institute). His research is supported by multiple funding sources including his CIFAR AI Chair position, which provides significant research resources for advancing machine learning methodologies with scientific impact. Pleiss co-created and maintains GPyTorch, a highly efficient and modular implementation of Gaussian processes in PyTorch designed for speed, modularity, and prototyping. He is also involved with CoLA (Compositional Linear Algebra), a library for structured linear algebra operations in JAX and PyTorch that enables fast linear algebra computations by automatically exploiting matrix structure.

• Machine Learning
• Deep Learning
• Theoretical Foundations of AI
• +11 more

Mikhail (Misha) Belkin is a Professor at the Halicioglu Data Science Institute (HDSI) at the University of California San Diego , with an affiliated appointment in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering . He is also an Amazon Scholar , reflecting his impactful industry collaboration. Since January 2024, he has served as the Editor-in-Chief of the SIAM Journal on Mathematics of Data Science (SIMODS) . Research Interests: Belkin's research centers on the theoretical foundations of machine learning, particularly the mathematical understanding of modern deep learning. His work investigates interpolation , over-parameterization , and feature learning in neural networks. He is renowned for introducing the double descent risk curve, which reconciles classical bias-variance trade-offs with the success of overfitted models. His recent work identifies the Average Gradient Outer Product (AGOP) as a fundamental mechanism of feature learning, applicable across architectures like CNNs and transformers. Scientific Contributions and Trends: His recent publications, appearing in Science , PNAS , and NeurIPS , demonstrate a strong trend toward unifying theories of generalization and optimization in over-parameterized systems. He explores how interpolating models can be statistically optimal, how gradient descent converges in non-convex landscapes via the PL* condition, and how kernel methods can be enhanced to perform feature learning. ACM Fellow (2023) Editor-in-Chief, SIAM Journal on Mathematics of Data Science (2024–present) Advising and Grants: Belkin actively mentors students and collaborators such as Adityanarayanan Radhakrishnan , Daniel Beaglehole , and Chaoyue Liu , who are frequent co-authors. He is a Principal Investigator (PI) in the Collaboration on the Theoretical Foundations of Deep Learning , funded by the NSF and Simons Foundation. He is also an external collaborator with the Eric and Wendy Schmidt Center at the Broad Institute and part of the NSF-funded TILOS AI Institute . Laboratories and Teams: While not explicitly named, his research group at UCSD is deeply involved in theoretical machine learning, focusing on the intersection of statistics, optimization, and deep learning. His work often involves large-scale collaborations and is closely tied to initiatives like SIMODS and TILOS.

David DuvenaudView profile

Associate Professor

• Machine Learning
• Generative Models
• Bayesian Inference
• +5 more

David Duvenaud is an Associate Professor at the University of Toronto , holding a Canada Research Chair in Generative Models and a Schwartz Reisman Chair in Technology and Society . He is cross-appointed to the Department of Computer Science and Department of Statistical Sciences . A Sloan Research Fellow and founding member of the Vector Institute , his work bridges deep probabilistic models , AI safety , and scientific computing . PhD in Machine Learning (University of Cambridge, 2014) Postdoc in Hyperparameter Optimization (Harvard University, 2016) Co-founded Invenia (energy forecasting company) His research spans foundational Neural Ordinary Differential Equations (NeurIPS 2018 Best Paper) and Automatic Chemical Design (ACS Central Science 2018) to recent work on AGI governance (2025) and AI safety (2024). Key contributions include stochastic variational inference , implicit differentiation frameworks , and antisymmetrization layers for quantum Monte Carlo. Recent publications (2024-2025) focus on systemic existential risks from AI , many-shot jailbreaking attacks , and epistemic uncertainty quantification . His group trains energy-based models with scalable MCMC samplers and develops invertible neural architectures (e.g., Residual Flows NeurIPS 2019). He also explores human-AI alignment through LLM Processes (NeurIPS 2024) and Sycophancy in Language Models (ICLR 2024). Canada Research Chair (2025) NSERC Grant (2025) Sloan Research Fellow (2021) Schwartz Reisman Chair (2021) Best Paper Award (NeurIPS 2018) Distinguished Paper Award (ICFP 2021) His students include James Requeima , Jesse Bettencourt , and Raymond Douglas . He teaches courses on Statistical Methods for Machine Learning and Differentiable Inference . Current work (2025) investigates systemic human disempowerment through incremental AI capabilities and sabotage risk mitigation via hyperparameter-aware evaluations.

Amr YoussefView profile

Professor

• Applied Cryptography
• Network Security
• Cyber-Physical Systems Security
• +4 more

Amr Youssef is a Professor at the Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Concordia University. His research focuses on applied cryptography, network security, cyber-physical systems security, blockchain, and privacy. He has contributed extensively to securing smart grids, IoT devices, and web applications through cryptographic protocols and machine learning-driven solutions. His work addresses critical challenges in cybersecurity, including e-voting systems, fault-tolerant differential protection, and privacy-preserving communication protocols. He explores vulnerabilities in modern systems such as SSO permissions, JavaScript exploits, and stalkerware tools, while developing frameworks like MEGR-APT for APT detection and TEE-Receipt for non-repudiation. Youssef’s research integrates interdisciplinary approaches, combining cryptography with AI (e.g., vision transformers for power quality analysis) and leveraging trusted execution environments (TEE) for secure computing. His projects often involve collaboration with industrial standards (e.g., IEC 61850), emphasizing practical implementations in real-world systems.

Enamul Hoque PrinceView profile

Associate Professor

• Information Visualization and Visual Analytics
• Natural Language Processing
• Human-Computer Interaction

Enamul Hoque Prince is an Associate Professor and Director of the School of Information Technology at York University. He leads the Intelligent Visualization Lab, funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and Ontario Research Funds (ORF). He holds a PhD in Computer Science from the University of British Columbia and completed postdoctoral work at Stanford University. His research integrates information visualization, human-computer interaction (HCI), and natural language processing (NLP) to address information overload challenges. Dr. Prince's educational background includes a PhD from UBC, an MSc from Memorial University of Newfoundland, and a BSc from Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology. He has conducted research at institutions like Tableau Software and the Qatar Computing Research Institute and serves on committees for top conferences like ACL and IEEE Vis. His work is supported by grants from NSERC, CFI, and others. Research interests focus on NLP-driven visual analytics, user-adaptive visualization, and accessible interfaces. Notable projects include Evizeon (natural language interfaces for visual analytics), ConVisIT (topic modeling for online conversations), and CIDER (concept-based image search). Publications highlight trends in multimodal systems, chart comprehension, and accessibility. Key awards include the NSERC Discovery Grant (2019) and a Best Paper Honorable Mention at DIS 2021. He supervises graduate and undergraduate students in areas like visualization, NLP, and HCI. Labs and collaborations emphasize interdisciplinary approaches, with the Intelligent Visualization Lab advancing tools for data exploration and user-centered design. Teaching includes courses on design principles and information visualization.

Zhenman FangView profile

Associate Professor

• Customizable Computing
• Heterogeneous Computing
• FPGA Acceleration
• +8 more

Dr. Zhenman Fang is an Associate Professor at the School of Engineering Science , Simon Fraser University (SFU) , where he founded and directs the HiAccel Lab . He also holds an associate membership in the School of Computing Science at SFU. His research focuses on customizable computing with software-defined hardware acceleration , addressing performance, energy-efficiency, and reliability in post-Moore’s law computing across domains like machine learning , big data analytics , quantum chemistry , and precision medicine . Education: Ph.D. in Computer Science from Fudan University (2014), with a visit to University of Minnesota during his studies. Postdoctoral Work: University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) (2014-2017). Industry Experience: Staff Software Engineer at Xilinx (2017-2019). Dr. Fang’s research spans the entire computing stack , including application characterization , accelerator-rich architecture design , and programming/tool support . He has developed frameworks like HiSpMV , SyncNN , and SQL2FPGA , emphasizing FPGA acceleration for vision transformers , quantum chemistry , and spiking neural networks . His work has been recognized with 3 best paper awards (FPL 2024, TCAD 2019, MEMSYS 2017) and 3 best paper nominees (FCCM 2025, HPCA 2017, ISPASS 2018). Recent publications highlight trends in low-precision machine learning ( ShiftQuant , ESRU ), quantum chemistry acceleration ( SERI ), and vision transformer optimization ( Quasar-ViT ). His HiAccel Lab actively mentors PhD and MASc students , with notable graduates like Alec Lu (PhD 2024, now at Meta) and Philip Stachura (MASc, now with BC Graduate Scholarship). Scientific Awards: Inaugural SFU Research Excellence Award - Horizon Award (2025) FPL 2024 Stamatis Vassiliadis Best Paper NSERC Alliance Award (2020) CFI JELF Award (2019) Xilinx University Program Award (2019) IEEE Senior Member (2023) Grants: NSERC Discovery Grant (2019) CFI JELF Funding (2019) Huawei and Xilinx sponsorships Dr. Fang leads open-source initiatives like SyncNN , PASTA , and SQL2FPGA , and serves as General Chair for ASAP 2025 and Program Co-Chair for RAW 2025 . His lab collaborates globally with institutions such as UCLA , Northeastern University , and Xidian University .

Hiren PatelView profile

Professor

• Real-Time Embedded Systems
• Computer Architecture
• Hardware for Machine Learning/AI
• +9 more

Dr. Hiren Patel is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Waterloo. He holds a Doctorate in Computer Engineering from Virginia Tech and previously worked as a postdoctoral fellow at UC Berkeley under Edward A. Lee. His research focuses on real-time embedded systems, computer architecture, machine learning hardware, and cybersecurity. He teaches courses like ECE 150 (Programming), ECE 320/429 (Computer Architecture), and ECE 327 (Digital Systems). Research Interests: Cyber-physical systems and hybrid architectures Hardware/software co-design methodologies Predictable cache coherence protocols IoT and edge computing systems Security in embedded and real-time systems Recent work emphasizes cache coherence solutions for safety-critical systems and GPU acceleration strategies. His publications address challenges in multicore predictability, FPGA bandwidth optimization, and autonomous robotics orchestration. No specific awards are listed, though his extensive publication record indicates significant contributions to embedded systems research. He currently oversees graduate student applications focusing on his core research areas.

• High-speed data converters
• Wireless transceivers
• Digital phase-locked loops
• +7 more

Shiyu Su is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Waterloo. His research focuses on high-speed data converters, wireless transceivers, digital phase-locked loops (PLL), and AI-assisted analog/mixed-signal design automation. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Southern California (2019) and teaches courses such as ECE 340 (Electronic Circuits 2) and ECE 432 (Radio Frequency Integrated Devices and Circuits). Education: B.S. from Beijing University of Post and Telecommunication (China) and Queen Mary, University of London (UK), 2011; M.S. and Ph.D. from USC, 2013 and 2019, all in electrical engineering. Research Interests: High-speed ADCs/DACs RF/mm-wave transceivers Time-approximation filters (TAF) Analog/mixed-signal design automation Memristor-based computing Biomedical interfaces Key Awards: IEEE SSCS Predoctoral Achievement Award (2017–2018) Best Student Paper Award at IEEE RFIC (2022) Ming Hsieh Institute Scholar (2019–2020) Lab Focus: The Shiyu Su Lab develops integrated circuits for communications, sensing, and computing, with a focus on AI-driven methodologies and digital-analog co-design. Collaborations include work with Prof. Wei Wu (USC) on memristor-based systems.

David VocadloView profile

Professor

• Bioorganic Chemistry
• Chemical Biology
• Glycobiology
• +3 more

David Vocadlo is a Distinguished Professor of Chemistry and Molecular Biology & Biochemistry at Simon Fraser University (SFU), holding the Canada Research Chair in Chemical Biology. His research focuses on Chemical Glycobiology, investigating carbohydrate-processing enzymes and developing chemical tools to study glycan roles in health and disease. His lab explores O-GlcNAc signaling, neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s), and enzyme inhibitors for therapeutic applications. Education: PhD from University of British Columbia (UBC), followed by a CIHR postdoctoral fellowship at UC Berkeley. Key roles include E.W.R. Steacie Memorial Fellow and Royal Society Fellow. Research highlights include O-GlcNAcase inhibitors for neuroprotection, glycan structure-function relationships, and enzyme activity imaging tools. Collaborates globally with experts in glycobiology and employs cutting-edge techniques like chemical synthesis, mass spectrometry, and live-cell imaging. Awards: Distinguished Professor title, Canada Research Chair, Royal Society Fellowship. Active in training researchers through SFU’s graduate programs, emphasizing interdisciplinary approaches. Lab members work on topics ranging from enzyme mechanisms to disease modeling.

• Storage Systems
• Persistent Memory
• Key-Value Stores
• +4 more

Oana Balmau is an Assistant Professor in the School of Computer Science at McGill University, where she leads the Data-Intensive Storage and Computer Systems Laboratory (DISCS Lab). She also holds a status-only appointment at the University of Toronto and serves as a working group chair for MLPerf Storage. Her research focuses on creating storage infrastructure that enables fast and energy-conscious insights from data, with particular emphasis on storage and persistent memory technologies for machine learning, data science, and edge computing workloads. Dr. Balmau's research interests span computer systems, with specific focus on: Design and implementation of efficient key-value stores Storage systems for machine learning workloads Edge computing infrastructure Persistent memory technologies Performance optimization of data-intensive systems Her recent work has led to significant contributions in storage benchmarking through the MLPerf Storage benchmark and in edge computing frameworks. The MLPerf Storage benchmark has become an industry standard for evaluating storage performance in machine learning environments, while her work on hierarchical edge computing addresses security and performance challenges in distributed edge environments. Her publications show consistent high-impact contributions to top systems venues, with recent work focusing on processing-in-memory virtualization, stream processing reconfiguration, and efficient data preprocessing pipelines. Dr. Balmau has received numerous awards for her research, including: SEC 2024 Best Paper Award for "Falcon: Live Reconfiguration for Stateful Stream Processing on the Edge" MLCommons Hero Award 2023 for leadership as MLPerf Storage working group chair ACM SIGOPS Dennis M. Ritchie Doctoral Dissertation Award 2021 Honorable Mention CORE John Makepeace Bennett Award 2021 for the best Computer Science doctoral dissertation in Australia and New Zealand USENIX ATC 2019 Best Paper Award for "SILK: Preventing Latency Spikes in Log-Structured Merge Key-Value Stores" As an educator, Dr. Balmau teaches courses on advanced computer systems, operating systems, and principles of computer systems design at McGill University. She has served on program committees for top systems conferences including SOSP, SIGMOD, FAST, and EuroSys, and has co-organized workshops on resource-efficient machine learning and edge computing. She leads the DISCS Lab, which focuses on two main research directions: Systems for ML (including the MLPerf Storage benchmark) and Edge computing (including frameworks for fast and secure edge computing in hierarchical edge environments).

• Machine Learning
• Artificial Intelligence
• Data Science
• +6 more

Chris J. Maddison is an Assistant Professor at the University of Toronto, holding joint appointments in the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Statistical Sciences. He is also a CIFAR AI Chair at the Vector Institute and a member of the ELLIS Society. Maddison earned his DPhil from the University of Oxford and previously worked as a Senior Research Scientist at Google DeepMind and a member at the Institute for Advanced Study. His research focuses on advancing machine learning methodologies, particularly in leveraging data’s natural structure for efficient learning, with applications in drug discovery, causal inference, and AI safety. Education: DPhil in Computer Science, University of Oxford His research interests span machine learning, AI safety, reinforcement learning, and the integration of logical reasoning into large language models. Maddison has contributed to foundational work on gradient estimation techniques and was a key member of the AlphaGo project. He actively explores how statistical structures in real-world data influence AI capabilities. Recent publications emphasize evaluating conversational agents, mitigating AI safety risks, and enhancing logical reasoning in LLMs. His work bridges theoretical advancements with practical applications, such as code generation and multi-agent systems. Awards: NeurIPS Best Paper Award (2014), Open Philanthropy AI Fellowship Maddison advises multiple PhD students and postdoctoral researchers, fostering collaborations across academia and industry. His former advisees now hold roles at institutions like OpenAI, Stanford, and Magic AI. He teaches advanced courses in machine learning and statistical methods, including CSC 2541 (Large Models) and STA 314 (Machine Learning). Maddison is affiliated with the Schwartz Reisman Institute for Technology and Society, extending his impact to societal implications of AI. His lab’s interdisciplinary approach combines algorithmic innovation with real-world problem-solving.