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Cathy WuView profile

Associate Professor

• Reinforcement Learning
• Transportation Systems
• Optimization and Control
• +3 more

Cathy Wu is an Associate Professor at MIT, with affiliations in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE), and Institute for Data, Systems, and Society (IDSS). Her research group focuses on integrating machine learning with model-based optimization to solve complex problems in transportation systems and cyber-physical systems. Academic Leadership: Class of 1954 Career Development Associate Professor (MIT) Research Grants: NSF CAREER Award, Amazon Robotics, Mathworks, MIT Mobility Initiative, US DOT, Microsoft Research, Cintra, Symbotic Research Interests : Wu's work bridges AI and engineering challenges in transportation. Key areas include: Hybrid ML/Model-based Optimization (large neighborhood search, branch-and-cut) Sustainable Mobility (Project Greenwave, eco-driving) Multi-Agent Coordination (warehouse automation, cooperative driving) Cyber-Professional Systems (generalization in RL, transfer learning) Recent work demonstrates significant advances in eco-driving (11-22% emissions reduction), large-scale multi-agent path finding (1000+ agents), and foundational RL methods for traffic control. Her group has produced 15+ major publications since 2015, with notable media coverage in Science, Wired, and NewScientist. Selected Scientific Awards NSF CAREER Award (2023) Ole Madsen Mentoring Award (2025) IEEE ITSS WiE/YP Fellowship (2024) Harold L. Hazen Teaching Award (2022) Her lab has advised 12+ graduate students and postdocs, including: Vindula Jayawardana (PhD '24, now at Anthropic) Sirui Li (PhD '25, now at Microsoft Research) Yining Ma (Postdoc, active researcher) Zhongxia Yan (PhD '24, now at Anthropic)

Rudi ZagstView profile

Professor

• Financial Engineering
• Risk Management
• Asset Management
• +3 more

Prof. Dr. Rudi Zagst is a Professor of Mathematical Finance at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), where he serves as Head of the Department of Mathematical Finance within the TUM School of Computation, Information and Technology. He has held this position since 2001 and is actively involved in teaching, research, and academic leadership. In 2003, he was appointed as a second member of the Faculty of Economics, and since 2004, he has served as Deputy Chairman of the joint elite degree program 'Finance & Information Management' of the University of Augsburg and TUM. Prof. Zagst earned his doctorate in business mathematics from the University of Ulm, where he later completed his habilitation in 2000. His academic journey began with a professional career at HypoVereinsbank AG, where he served as Head of Product Development in Institutional Investment Management before becoming Managing Director of RiskLab GmbH in 1997. His research focuses primarily on financial engineering, risk management, and asset management, with particular emphasis on portfolio optimization, mathematical finance, and quantitative risk management. His work bridges theoretical finance with practical applications, often incorporating advanced mathematical techniques to solve complex financial problems. Recent publications demonstrate his continued interest in GARCH models, portfolio optimization under various constraints, and the application of machine learning techniques to financial problems. Analysis of his recent publications (2024-2025) reveals a strong focus on portfolio optimization under complex market conditions, particularly using GARCH models to capture volatility dynamics. His work increasingly incorporates machine learning techniques (as seen in the credit spread analysis paper) while maintaining rigorous mathematical foundations. Many papers explore the intersection of theoretical finance with practical investment strategies, reflecting his commitment to bridging academic research with real-world financial applications. Professor of the Year 2007 (awarded by Unicum Profession magazine) Prof. Zagst has supervised numerous bachelor's, master's, and doctoral theses through TUM's Finance and Actuarial Science research group. His collaborative work with industry partners through the TUM CAIR Labs and RiskFactory demonstrates strong connections between academic research and practical financial applications. He has received research funding through various industry partnerships with major financial institutions including Allianz, Munich Re, and ERGO Group AG. Prof. Zagst leads the Research Group Finance and Actuarial Science at TUM, which includes Professors Matthias Scherer, Aleksey Min, and Christoph Knochenhauer. The group maintains strong industry connections through the TUM CAIR Labs initiative, collaborating with over 25 financial institutions including Allianz, Munich Re, Deloitte, PwC, and KPMG. Their RiskFactory laboratory serves as a bridge between academic research and practical financial risk management applications in the industry.

• Climate Change Economics
• Carbon Footprints
• Air Pollution and Health
• +4 more

Dr. Zhifu Mi is a Professor of Climate Change Economics at the Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction , University College London. His research focuses on carbon footprint analysis, climate change economics, air pollution and health, sharing economy sustainability, and input-output modeling. He has published extensively in top journals like Nature Sustainability , Lancet , and Science Advances . Co-Editor-in-Chief, Structural Change and Economic Dynamics (2020–present) Executive Editor, Journal of Cleaner Production (2019–present) President, Chinese Economic Association (UK/Europe) Council Member, International Input-Output Association Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society His research explores: Carbon Footprints: Economic development and emission convergence in Chinese households Climate-Health Linkages: Air pollution impacts, ultra-low emission policies Sharing Economy: Sustainable societies through shared micro-mobility Policy Analysis: Synergies between environmental regulations Recent publications analyze decarbonization employment gaps, polycentric urban structures, and health-environment policy intersections. Awards include the World Sustainability Award (2018), multiple Clarivate Highly Cited Researcher honors, and UCL's Outstanding Research Supervision Award (2022). He teaches modules on construction economics and input-output analysis.

• Materials Handling
• Logistics
• Crane Dynamics
• +3 more

Dr. Michael Kleeberger is a Researcher at the Chair of Materials Handling, Material Flow, Logistics (FML) at the Technical University of Munich, based at Boltzmannstr. 15 in Garching. He collaborates closely with Prof. Johannes Fottner and maintains an active research profile in crane dynamics and mechanical systems simulation. His research specializes in Materials Handling and Logistics with emphasis on Crane Dynamics, Flexible Multibody Systems, and Control Systems. He develops advanced models for hydraulic actuated cranes, focusing on dynamic behavior during hoisting, slewing, and trajectory operations using port-Hamiltonian formulations and geometrically exact beam theory. His work bridges theoretical mechanics with industrial applications in heavy machinery. Analysis of his 15 most recent publications reveals consistent focus on numerical methods for flexible crane structures, with growing emphasis on optimal control strategies (2020-2025). Key trends include port-Hamiltonian system applications, lunar crane feasibility studies, and vibration mitigation techniques for lattice boom and knuckle boom configurations across diverse operational scenarios. As part of FML, Dr. Kleeberger contributes to TUM's leadership in logistics engineering through industry-collaborative projects and fundamental research in material flow systems, maintaining the chair's reputation for excellence in mechanical dynamics and practical engineering solutions.

Harish RavichandarView profile

Assistant Professor

• Robotics
• Machine Learning
• Human-Robot Interaction
• +2 more

Harish Ravichandar is an Assistant Professor at the School of Interactive Computing , Georgia Institute of Technology, and a core faculty member of the Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Machines (IRIM) . He leads the Structured Techniques for Algorithmic Robotics (STAR) Lab , focusing on structured computational frameworks and learning algorithms with inductive biases to enhance robot efficiency, reliability, and self-sufficiency in human-robot collaboration and complex applications like dexterous manipulation and multi-agent coordination. His research bridges robot learning , human-robot interaction , and multi-agent systems , emphasizing stable, frugal, and safe skill acquisition from human demonstrations. Key themes include intention inference , trajectory optimization , and heterogeneous team coordination , often leveraging Koopman operators , hypernetworks , and graph-based methods . Scientific recognition includes the NSF CAREER Award , IEEE MRS Best Paper Award , and Georgia Tech’s College of Computing Outstanding Post-Doctoral Research Award . His work also received the ASME DSCC Best Student Paper Award and P&W Institute Graduate Fellowship . Harish’s educational background includes a Ph.D. in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Connecticut (2018) , an M.S. from the University of Florida (2014) , and a B.E. in Instrumentation and Control Engineering from Anna University (2012) . He previously held postdoctoral and research scientist roles at Georgia Tech before his current position.

J. Edward ColgateView profile

Professor

• Human-Robot Interaction
• Haptic Display
• Teleoperation
• +4 more

J. Edward Colgate is the Walter P. Murphy Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Director of the Human Augmentation via Dexterity (HAND) Engineering Research Center at Northwestern University's McCormick School of Engineering. He also holds the title of Breed Senior Professor of Design. His academic career includes leadership roles as founding co-Director of the Segal Design Institute and director of the Master of Science in Engineering Design and Innovation program. Colgate earned his Ph.D. (1988), S.M. (1986), and S.B. in Physics (1983) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Colgate's research focuses on physical human-robot interaction with specialization in surface haptic interactive design and electroadhesion technology development. His work spans three interconnected domains: haptic interfaces (including wearable haptic arrays and Touchbot systems), robot dexterity through Shape-Based Remote Manipulation (SBRM) for overcoming communication delays, and high-speed electroadhesive actuators. The Northwestern Haptics Lab under his direction aims to create realistic virtual environments by merging these research vectors. His publications demonstrate consistent focus on tactile perception mechanisms, electroadhesion applications, and haptic rendering algorithms. Recent work explores texture playback fidelity, wearable electroadhesive arrays, robotic manipulation, and human-swarm control systems, reflecting interdisciplinary integration of mechanical engineering, materials science, and neuroscience principles. Awards: Elected to National Academy of Engineering (2021) for contributions to haptics, human-robot systems, and design education Inducted into National Academy of Inventors (2015) Educational initiatives include developing Northwestern's Design Thinking and Communication curriculum, establishing the Certificate in Engineering Design, and creating the Master of Science in Engineering Design and Innovation. He teaches ME 390: Introduction to System Dynamics using a flipped classroom model. Colgate directs the Northwestern Haptics Lab within the Center for Robotics and Biosystems, focusing on fundamental haptics research with applications in virtual reality, prosthetics, and human-assistive devices. The lab maintains active industry partnerships for technology transfer of haptic innovations.

• Control Theory
• Machine Learning
• Nonlinear Estimation
• +6 more

Prashant Mehta is a Professor of Mechanical Science and Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , affiliated with the Coordinated Science Laboratory . His research focuses on controlled interacting particle systems and machine learning applications , particularly in human activity recognition using motion sensors. Education: Ph.D. in Mathematics, Cornell University (2004) M.S. in Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst (1996) B.E. in Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology & Sciences (1993) Mehta's work has pioneered the feedback particle filter (FPF) algorithm for nonlinear estimation, applied in robotic systems and gesture recognition. His research spans control of combustion instabilities in jet engines, mean-field games , and dynamical systems in aerospace engineering. His publications emphasize nonlinear control theory and stochastic filtering , with recent trends in sensor data pattern recognition and cyber-physical systems . He has received multiple scientific awards , including the MURI award for the Cyberoctopus project and Excellence in Undergraduate Advising Awards . Scientific Honors: MURI Award (2019) for Cyberoctopus Excellence in Undergraduate Advising (2010, 2008) Outstanding Teaching Assistant Award (1994) Senior Member, IEEE Control Systems Society Member, ASME Energy Systems Subcommittee Member, SIAM Dynamical Systems Group Mehta has supervised students like Jin Kim (IEEE CDC Best Student Paper, 2019) and co-founded the startup Rithmio , acquired by Bosch Sensortec . His laboratory develops gesture-detection filters for applications in soft robotics and human-machine interfaces .

Pardis Emami-NaeiniView profile

Assistant Professor

• Security
• Privacy
• Human-Computer Interaction
• +7 more

Pardis Emami-Naeini is an Assistant Professor of Computer Science at Duke University, with joint appointments in the Sanford School of Public Policy and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. She serves as the Director of the Duke Interdisciplinary Security, Privacy, and Interaction Research (InSPIre) lab and is a Duke Science and Technology Scholar. Her interdisciplinary work bridges computer science, public policy, and electrical engineering, with a focus on developing usable privacy and security solutions that empower individuals from diverse sociodemographic backgrounds. Dr. Emami-Naeini earned her Ph.D. in Computer Science from Carnegie Mellon University in 2020, followed by postdoctoral research at the University of Washington (2020-2022). Her research sits at the intersection of security, privacy, and human-computer interaction, with particular expertise in IoT security, technology-enabled abuse, reproductive health privacy, and smart city security. She has published extensively at flagship venues including IEEE S&P, CHI, CSCW, and SOUPS, with her work covered by major media outlets such as Wired and The Wall Street Journal. Her recent publications reveal a clear trajectory toward examining the human dimensions of security and privacy in emerging technologies, from LLM chatbots for mental health to social robots and period-tracking apps in the post-Roe v. Wade landscape. Her work consistently emphasizes the need for privacy-aware design that accounts for diverse user needs and contexts, particularly for vulnerable populations. Google Systems and ML Research Gift Award (2025) Google AI Research Scholar Program Award (2024) Top 5% Instructor in Duke Trinity College (2024) ORAU Ralph E. Powe Junior Faculty Enhancement Award (2023) Duke Science and Technology Scholar (2022) IEEE S&P paper highlighted in IEEE Security and Privacy Magazine (2021) CyLab Presidential Fellowship (2019) Dr. Emami-Naeini actively mentors several Ph.D. students including Jabari Kwesi, Jessie Cao, and Hiba Laabadli, as well as undergraduate and master's students. Her research has influenced key organizations including the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Consumer Reports, and the World Economic Forum in creating usable security and privacy labels for smart devices. She serves on numerous program committees including USENIX Security and CHI, and has participated in NSF grant review panels, demonstrating her growing leadership in the security and privacy community. Her InSPIre lab conducts user-centered research to uncover security and privacy needs of diverse stakeholders, with a particular focus on marginalized communities. The lab's work spans multiple domains including intimate partner violence, reproductive health, virtual reality, and smart cities, always with a strong emphasis on translating research findings into practical tools and policy recommendations.

Valerie Viet Triem TongView profile

Research Professor

• Information Flow Control
• Android Security
• Malware Analysis and Detection
• +5 more

Valerie Viet Triem Tong is a Research Professor at the Paris Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering. She has established herself as a leading researcher in cybersecurity with a particular focus on information flow control systems, Android security, and malware analysis. Her work spans both theoretical foundations and practical security tools development. Her research interests center on Information Flow Control , where she has developed frameworks for monitoring and enforcing security policies at both operating system and application levels. She has made significant contributions to Android Security , creating tools for detecting malicious behavior in mobile applications and addressing privacy concerns in smartphone environments. Her work in Malware Analysis includes developing advanced techniques for tracking and visualizing malware behavior, with emphasis on evasive Windows malware and Android malware in the wild. She also investigates Peer-to-Peer Network Security , focusing on Sybil attack resistance and distributed identity management. Analysis of her publication record reveals a consistent trajectory from foundational work in information flow theory to increasingly applied security research. Her recent work shows a strong emphasis on practical security tools (DaViz, GUI-Mimic, BAGUETTE), security evaluation methodologies (Digital twin, CERBERE), and addressing contemporary challenges in malware analysis (debiasing datasets, handling obfuscated applications). A notable trend is her integration of visualization techniques with security analysis to make complex security data accessible to both experts and machine learning systems. As an advisor, she has mentored numerous researchers who have become first authors on significant publications, including Radoniaina Andriatsimandefitra, Tomás Concepcion Miranda, and Cedric Herzog. Her research has been supported by multiple grants focused on cybersecurity infrastructure, though specific grant details are not provided in the available information. Dr. Tong is actively involved with the CIDre security research group in Rennes, contributing to collaborative projects that bridge theoretical security models with practical implementation challenges. Her work on information flow monitoring has evolved from basic research to applied systems that address real-world security concerns across multiple platforms.

• statistical machine learning
• optimization
• sparse methods
• +5 more

Francis Bach is a Professor and researcher at INRIA, leading the SIERRA project-team since 2011, which is part of the Computer Science Department at Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS) within PSL Research University. His work bridges CNRS, ENS, and INRIA as a joint research effort. Elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 2020, he currently runs the ERC project SEQUOIA following his previous ERC project SIERRA (2009-2014). His research spans statistical machine learning with focus on optimization, sparse methods, kernel-based learning, neural networks, graphical models, and signal processing. Bach completed his Ph.D. in Computer Science at U.C. Berkeley under Professor Michael Jordan, followed by work at Ecole des Mines de Paris and the WILLOW project-team at INRIA/ENS/CNRS (2007-2010). His recent book "Learning Theory from First Principles" was published by MIT Press in December 2024. Bach's publication record shows consistent high-impact contributions across machine learning theory and applications, with recent work focusing on conformal prediction, diffusion models, optimization theory, and learning theory foundations. His research demonstrates strong connections between theoretical guarantees and practical algorithms, with applications spanning generative modeling, robust optimization, and statistical inference. Elected to French Academy of Sciences (2020) ERC project SIERRA (2009-2014) ERC project SEQUOIA (current) Author of "Learning Theory from First Principles" (MIT Press, 2024) Bach actively mentors numerous PhD students and postdocs, with many alumni now holding faculty positions at institutions like EPFL, Ecole Polytechnique, University of Washington, and University of Montreal. His teaching includes advanced courses on learning theory at ENS's Master's programs. He regularly presents tutorials at major conferences including COLT, NeurIPS, and ICML, demonstrating his leadership in the theoretical machine learning community.

Rahul SarpeshkarView profile

Professor

• Analog synthetic biology
• Quantum circuit design
• Feedback control systems
• +6 more

Rahul Sarpeshkar is a Professor of Engineering, Microbiology & Immunology, Physics, and Molecular & Systems Biology at Dartmouth College, holding the Thomas E. Kurtz Professorship and chairing the Neukom Computational Science Cluster. His research bridges analog circuits with quantum physics, synthetic biology, and ultra-low-power systems. BS in Electrical Engineering and Physics from MIT (1995) PhD in Computation and Neural Systems from Caltech (1998) His research focuses on analog synthetic biology , quantum circuit design , and bio-inspired supercomputing , emphasizing noise, thermodynamics, and energy efficiency. He develops cytomorphic chips to model biochemical networks and quantum-inspired circuits for spectrum analysis. Recent work integrates quantum and classical computation for biological simulations, drug cocktail formulation , and ATP energy measurement in living cells. Patents highlight innovations in quantum emulation and medical devices. Scientific awards include: Fellow, National Academy of Inventors (2018) IEEE Fellow (2018) NSF CAREER Award ONR Young Investigator Award Packard Fellow Award Junior Bose Teaching Award, MIT He leads a wet lab for synthetic microbial circuit implementation and a dry lab for quantum and nanoelectronics, mentoring a multidisciplinary team of physicists, bioengineers, and computer scientists.

• Tropical Medicine
• Travel Medicine
• Migrant Health
• +3 more

Sapha Barkati, MD, MSc is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University , and an Investigator at the RI-MUHC Glen site . Her work bridges clinical practice and research in tropical medicine, focusing on parasitic diseases affecting vulnerable populations. Affiliations: Assistant Professor, McGill University Investigator, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre (RI-MUHC) McGill International Tuberculosis Centre Research Focus: Specializes in neglected tropical diseases like strongyloidiasis and tegumentary leishmaniasis, particularly among migrants and immunocompromised individuals. Studies include: Physician awareness of Strongyloides screening Prevalence patterns in non-endemic countries HTLV-1 co-infection treatment response Cost-effective screening strategies Scientific Contributions: Key publications address tropical disease management in non-endemic settings, mpox outbreak dynamics, and SARS-CoV-2 immunity patterns. Her work emphasizes evidence-based guidelines for: Parasite screening in transplant recipients Leishmaniasis treatment protocols Traveler disease prevention Collaborative Networks: Partners with institutions like Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia and participates in GeoSentinel surveillance. Leads studies on: Covid-19 health disparities Vaccine effectiveness against variants Remote patient monitoring systems

Brett SandersView profile

Professor

• Flood modeling and prediction
• Coastal and urban flooding
• Hydrological modeling
• +7 more

Brett Sanders is a Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine. His research focuses on developing innovative algorithms for flow and transport in river and coastal systems and integrating information technologies to create more accurate and efficient simulation tools for flood hazard assessment. His primary research interests include: Flooding and erosion hazards, particularly coastal flooding and urban flooding Surface water quality Low impact development impacts on hydrology Dam-break flooding Aerial and terrestrial lidar scanning Geographical information systems High performance computing for simulation tools Social dimensions of flood risk and adaptation behaviors Dr. Sanders' recent publications (2024-2025) reveal a comprehensive research program addressing both technical and social aspects of flood risk. His work spans computational hydrodynamics, flood hazard mapping, infrastructure vulnerability assessment, and the socioeconomic dimensions of flood risk. He has made significant contributions to understanding multi-grid modeling of urban flooding, post-fire flood hazards, satellite-based monitoring of land motion, and social inequalities in flood exposure. His research demonstrates how flood dynamics are more complex than simple bath-tub filling models suggest, with important implications for urban planning and climate adaptation. Dr. Sanders has received recognition as a Chancellor's Professor at UC Irvine, indicating distinguished scholarly achievement. His educational background includes: Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from the University of Michigan (1997) M.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Michigan (1994) B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley (1993)

Maria-Fátima SantosView profile

Assistant Professor

• General Social Theory
• Political Sociology
• Law and Society
• +4 more

Maria-Fátima Santos is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, examining legal and penal state power dynamics, social exclusion mechanisms, and state transformation processes with a focus on Brazil's penal courts and carceral systems. Education: Ph.D., University of California-Berkeley (2024) Research Focus: Her work integrates General Social Theory, Political Sociology, and Law and Society to investigate how public defenders navigate inequality and racialized violence, while analyzing carceral administration's role in political legitimacy. Current projects explore legal aid professions and state-citizen conflicts through ethnographic and institutional lenses. Affiliations: Center for Law, Society & Justice Her publication trends reveal a concentrated scholarly trajectory bridging political sociology with Latin American criminology, emphasizing state power evolution and racialized social control. No scientific awards, advising records, or grant details were documented in the source material.

C. Daniel MelizaView profile

Associate Professor

• Systems Neuroscience
• Behavioral Neuroscience
• Auditory Neuroscience
• +3 more

C. Daniel Meliza is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Virginia. His research focuses on the neural mechanisms of auditory learning and perception, primarily using zebra finches as a model system to understand how brains process complex vocal communication. Dr. Meliza's research investigates how neural circuits enable auditory learning and perception in songbirds. His lab studies experience-dependent plasticity, examining how early acoustic environments shape auditory processing. They also investigate how birds form internal models of vocal signals and use them to reconstruct degraded communication in noisy environments. This work has implications for understanding speech perception and communication disorders in humans. His recent publications reveal a strong focus on intrinsic plasticity mechanisms in the auditory cortex, computational modeling of neural systems, and how experience shapes neural coding of vocalizations. The work spans from cellular mechanisms to systems-level processing, with increasing integration of computational approaches to understand neural dynamics. Dr. Meliza has received significant recognition for his research: NIH R01 grant from NIDCD to examine mechanisms of intrinsic plasticity in early auditory learning (2021) NSF CAREER Award to study neural mechanisms of auditory restoration (2020) UVA Presidential Fellowship for Collaborative Neuroscience (2022) Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Postgraduate Scholarship (2023) UVA Double Hoo Award (2023) Dr. Meliza has successfully mentored multiple PhD students including Yao Lu, Samantha Moseley, Christof Fehrman, and Margot Bjoring. His lab is well-funded through competitive grants from NIH and NSF, supporting research into the fundamental neural mechanisms underlying auditory learning and perception. The lab employs a multidisciplinary approach combining behavioral experiments, electrophysiology, computational modeling, and molecular techniques. The Meliza Lab at the University of Virginia operates at the intersection of neuroscience, psychology, and computational modeling. The team uses zebra finches to investigate how the brain processes complex vocal communication, with particular focus on how experience shapes neural circuits during development. Current research directions include examining how complex acoustic environments influence auditory perception and neural coding, and how neural circuits implement rapid gain control mechanisms.